{
    "slug": "k-factor-bend-allowance",
    "title": "Factor K y tolerancia de doblado para el plegado de chapa",
    "description": "Factores K por material y espesor para doblado al aire, a fondo y acuñado según DIN 6935, con ejemplos resueltos de tolerancia y deducción de doblado para dobleces de 90 grados.",
    "lang": "es",
    "tables": [
        {
            "caption": "Factores K por material, espesor y método de doblado (DIN 6935 calculado + intervalos publicados)",
            "columns": [
                "Material",
                "t (mm)",
                "Matriz V (mm)",
                "R_i (mm)",
                "R/t",
                "K DIN 6935",
                "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)",
                "K a fondo",
                "K acuñado",
                "y = K·t (mm)",
                "Fuente"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "Material": "DC01 mild steel",
                    "t (mm)": "0.5",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "6",
                    "R_i (mm)": "0.96",
                    "R/t": "1.92",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.40",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.40–0.43",
                    "K a fondo": "0.44–0.47",
                    "K acuñado": "0.41–0.46",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.20",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "DC01 mild steel",
                    "t (mm)": "0.8",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "6",
                    "R_i (mm)": "0.96",
                    "R/t": "1.20",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.34",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.34–0.43",
                    "K a fondo": "0.44–0.47",
                    "K acuñado": "0.41–0.46",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.27",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "DC01 mild steel",
                    "t (mm)": "1.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "8",
                    "R_i (mm)": "1.28",
                    "R/t": "1.28",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.35",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.35–0.43",
                    "K a fondo": "0.44–0.47",
                    "K acuñado": "0.41–0.46",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.35",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "DC01 mild steel",
                    "t (mm)": "1.5",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "12",
                    "R_i (mm)": "1.92",
                    "R/t": "1.28",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.35",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.35–0.43",
                    "K a fondo": "0.44–0.47",
                    "K acuñado": "0.41–0.46",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.53",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "DC01 mild steel",
                    "t (mm)": "2.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "16",
                    "R_i (mm)": "2.56",
                    "R/t": "1.28",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.35",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.35–0.43",
                    "K a fondo": "0.44–0.47",
                    "K acuñado": "0.41–0.46",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.70",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "DC01 mild steel",
                    "t (mm)": "3.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "25",
                    "R_i (mm)": "4.00",
                    "R/t": "1.33",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.36",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.36–0.43",
                    "K a fondo": "0.44–0.47",
                    "K acuñado": "0.41–0.46",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "1.07",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "DC01 mild steel",
                    "t (mm)": "4.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "32",
                    "R_i (mm)": "5.12",
                    "R/t": "1.28",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.35",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.35–0.43",
                    "K a fondo": "0.44–0.47",
                    "K acuñado": "0.41–0.46",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "1.40",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "DC01 mild steel",
                    "t (mm)": "6.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "50",
                    "R_i (mm)": "8.00",
                    "R/t": "1.33",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.36",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.36–0.43",
                    "K a fondo": "0.44–0.47",
                    "K acuñado": "0.41–0.46",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "2.14",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "DX51D+Z galvanized",
                    "t (mm)": "0.8",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "6",
                    "R_i (mm)": "0.96",
                    "R/t": "1.20",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.34",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.34–0.43",
                    "K a fondo": "0.44–0.47",
                    "K acuñado": "0.41–0.46",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.27",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "DX51D+Z galvanized",
                    "t (mm)": "1.5",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "12",
                    "R_i (mm)": "1.92",
                    "R/t": "1.28",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.35",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.35–0.43",
                    "K a fondo": "0.44–0.47",
                    "K acuñado": "0.41–0.46",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.53",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "DX51D+Z galvanized",
                    "t (mm)": "3.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "25",
                    "R_i (mm)": "4.00",
                    "R/t": "1.33",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.36",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.36–0.43",
                    "K a fondo": "0.44–0.47",
                    "K acuñado": "0.41–0.46",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "1.07",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "304 stainless",
                    "t (mm)": "0.8",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "8",
                    "R_i (mm)": "1.60",
                    "R/t": "2.00",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.40",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.40–0.45",
                    "K a fondo": "0.46–0.48",
                    "K acuñado": "0.44–0.47",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.32",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "304 stainless",
                    "t (mm)": "1.5",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "16",
                    "R_i (mm)": "3.20",
                    "R/t": "2.13",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.41",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.41–0.45",
                    "K a fondo": "0.46–0.48",
                    "K acuñado": "0.44–0.47",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.61",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "304 stainless",
                    "t (mm)": "3.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "32",
                    "R_i (mm)": "6.40",
                    "R/t": "2.13",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.41",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.41–0.45",
                    "K a fondo": "0.46–0.48",
                    "K acuñado": "0.44–0.47",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "1.23",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "316L stainless",
                    "t (mm)": "1.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "10",
                    "R_i (mm)": "2.10",
                    "R/t": "2.10",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.41",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.41–0.45",
                    "K a fondo": "0.46–0.48",
                    "K acuñado": "0.44–0.47",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.41",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "316L stainless",
                    "t (mm)": "2.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "20",
                    "R_i (mm)": "4.20",
                    "R/t": "2.10",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.41",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.41–0.45",
                    "K a fondo": "0.46–0.48",
                    "K acuñado": "0.44–0.47",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.82",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "316L stainless",
                    "t (mm)": "3.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "32",
                    "R_i (mm)": "6.72",
                    "R/t": "2.24",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.41",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.41–0.45",
                    "K a fondo": "0.46–0.48",
                    "K acuñado": "0.44–0.47",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "1.23",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "5052-H32 aluminium",
                    "t (mm)": "0.8",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "6",
                    "R_i (mm)": "0.96",
                    "R/t": "1.20",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.34",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.34–0.40",
                    "K a fondo": "0.42–0.46",
                    "K acuñado": "0.38–0.44",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.27",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "5052-H32 aluminium",
                    "t (mm)": "1.5",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "12",
                    "R_i (mm)": "1.92",
                    "R/t": "1.28",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.35",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.35–0.40",
                    "K a fondo": "0.42–0.46",
                    "K acuñado": "0.38–0.44",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.53",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "5052-H32 aluminium",
                    "t (mm)": "3.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "25",
                    "R_i (mm)": "4.00",
                    "R/t": "1.33",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.36",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.36–0.40",
                    "K a fondo": "0.42–0.46",
                    "K acuñado": "0.38–0.44",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "1.07",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "6061-T6 aluminium *",
                    "t (mm)": "1.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "10",
                    "R_i (mm)": "1.80",
                    "R/t": "1.80",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.39",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.39–0.45",
                    "K a fondo": "0.46–0.48",
                    "K acuñado": "0.44–0.47",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.39",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "6061-T6 aluminium *",
                    "t (mm)": "2.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "20",
                    "R_i (mm)": "3.60",
                    "R/t": "1.80",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.39",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.39–0.45",
                    "K a fondo": "0.46–0.48",
                    "K acuñado": "0.44–0.47",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.78",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "6061-T6 aluminium *",
                    "t (mm)": "3.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "32",
                    "R_i (mm)": "5.76",
                    "R/t": "1.92",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.40",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.40–0.45",
                    "K a fondo": "0.46–0.48",
                    "K acuñado": "0.44–0.47",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "1.20",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "C110 copper",
                    "t (mm)": "1.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "8",
                    "R_i (mm)": "1.28",
                    "R/t": "1.28",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.35",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.35–0.40",
                    "K a fondo": "0.42–0.46",
                    "K acuñado": "0.38–0.44",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.35",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "C110 copper",
                    "t (mm)": "2.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "16",
                    "R_i (mm)": "2.56",
                    "R/t": "1.28",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.35",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.35–0.40",
                    "K a fondo": "0.42–0.46",
                    "K acuñado": "0.38–0.44",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.70",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "C260 brass",
                    "t (mm)": "1.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "8",
                    "R_i (mm)": "1.28",
                    "R/t": "1.28",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.35",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.35–0.40",
                    "K a fondo": "0.42–0.46",
                    "K acuñado": "0.38–0.44",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.35",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                },
                {
                    "Material": "C260 brass",
                    "t (mm)": "2.0",
                    "Matriz V (mm)": "16",
                    "R_i (mm)": "2.56",
                    "R/t": "1.28",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.35",
                    "K al aire (DIN ↔ publicados)": "0.35–0.40",
                    "K a fondo": "0.42–0.46",
                    "K acuñado": "0.38–0.44",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.70",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                }
            ]
        },
        {
            "caption": "¿Qué factor K debo utilizar para acero dulce de 2 mm en doblado al aire?",
            "columns": [
                "Paso",
                "Cantidad",
                "Valor",
                "Nota"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "Paso": "1",
                    "Cantidad": "R/t",
                    "Valor": "2.0 / 2.0 = 1.00",
                    "Nota": "DIN 6935: k = 0.65 + 0.5·log10(1.00) = 0.65"
                },
                {
                    "Paso": "2",
                    "Cantidad": "K = k/2",
                    "Valor": "0.325",
                    "Nota": "El valor de la tabla se redondea a 0.33; este ejemplo utiliza el valor sin redondear"
                },
                {
                    "Paso": "3",
                    "Cantidad": "BA = (π/180)·A·(R + K·t), A = 90°",
                    "Valor": "4.163 mm",
                    "Nota": "1.5708 × 2.65"
                },
                {
                    "Paso": "4",
                    "Cantidad": "OSSB = (R + t)·tan(A/2)",
                    "Valor": "4.000 mm",
                    "Nota": "4.0 × tan 45°"
                },
                {
                    "Paso": "5",
                    "Cantidad": "Flat legs from 50/30 outside",
                    "Valor": "46.000 / 26.000 mm",
                    "Nota": "A_flat = 50 − OSSB, B_flat = 30 − OSSB"
                },
                {
                    "Paso": "6",
                    "Cantidad": "L = A + B + BA",
                    "Valor": "76.16 mm",
                    "Nota": "BD = 2×4.000 − 4.163 = 3.837; 50 + 30 − 3.837 = 76.163 ✓"
                },
                {
                    "Paso": "7",
                    "Cantidad": "If CAD default K = 0.44",
                    "Valor": "L = 76.52 mm (+0.361)",
                    "Nota": "BA = 4.524 mm; cuatro dobleces acumulan aproximadamente 1.4 mm"
                }
            ]
        },
        {
            "caption": "¿Por qué los programas CAD utilizan por defecto un factor K de 0.44?",
            "columns": [
                "Condición",
                "Qué K",
                "Valor típico",
                "Paso siguiente"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "Condición": "Ductile mild steel, air bending, R/t 0.5–3",
                    "Qué K": "DIN 6935 Table / formula",
                    "Valor típico": "0.25–0.40",
                    "Paso siguiente": "Prueba de doblado y despeje del K real"
                },
                {
                    "Condición": "Mild steel, CAD default, V = 6–8t",
                    "Qué K": "Published medium air (t–3t)",
                    "Valor típico": "0.43 (defaults 0.44–0.45)",
                    "Paso siguiente": "Úselo solo cuando las herramientas y el material coincidan; de lo contrario, cambie a DIN"
                },
                {
                    "Condición": "304/316 stainless, air bending",
                    "Qué K": "DIN 6935 at R/t 2.0–2.2",
                    "Valor típico": "0.40–0.41 (316 shop data up to 0.50)",
                    "Paso siguiente": "Compruebe el retorno elástico, las grietas y el desgaste de la matriz"
                },
                {
                    "Condición": "5052-H32 aluminium, air bending",
                    "Qué K": "DIN 6935 at R/t 1.2–1.3",
                    "Valor típico": "0.34–0.36",
                    "Paso siguiente": "Compruebe las grietas; el temple blando toma el extremo inferior"
                },
                {
                    "Condición": "6061-T6 aluminium, air bending",
                    "Qué K": "Published hard air / DIN upper bound",
                    "Valor típico": "0.39–0.45",
                    "Paso siguiente": "Prueba de doblado obligatoria; T6 se agrieta — prefiera un radio mayor"
                },
                {
                    "Condición": "C110 copper / C260 brass",
                    "Qué K": "DIN 6935 at R/t 1.28",
                    "Valor típico": "0.35",
                    "Paso siguiente": "Confirme el temple recocido; el temple duro toma el límite superior"
                },
                {
                    "Condición": "Bottoming",
                    "Qué K": "Published t–3t tier of the class",
                    "Valor típico": "0.42–0.48",
                    "Paso siguiente": "Nunca reutilice un K de doblado al aire"
                },
                {
                    "Condición": "Coining",
                    "Qué K": "Published t–3t tier of the class",
                    "Valor típico": "0.38–0.47",
                    "Paso siguiente": "Tenga en cuenta que el acuñado queda por debajo del doblado a fondo en la tabla publicada (véase la pregunta de acuñado frente a fondo)"
                },
                {
                    "Condición": "R/t > 5",
                    "Qué K": "K = 0.50",
                    "Valor típico": "0.50",
                    "Paso siguiente": "El eje neutro vuelve al medio espesor"
                },
                {
                    "Condición": "R/t < 0.5",
                    "Qué K": "DIN Table low end",
                    "Valor típico": "0.15–0.25",
                    "Paso siguiente": "Alto riesgo de grietas — aumente el radio o cambie de material"
                },
                {
                    "Condición": "New material / new tooling / no data",
                    "Qué K": "Test bend, back-solve",
                    "Valor típico": "measured",
                    "Paso siguiente": "Fije el K medido en la biblioteca de materiales del CAD"
                }
            ]
        },
        {
            "caption": "¿Cómo cambia el factor K con el radio interior?",
            "columns": [
                "R/t",
                "k (DIN 6935)",
                "K = k/2",
                "y/t",
                "Nota"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "R/t": "0.05",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.00",
                    "K = k/2": "0.00",
                    "y/t": "0.00",
                    "Nota": "Eje neutro en la superficie interior; riesgo de grietas — no diseñe en este punto"
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "0.07",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.06",
                    "K = k/2": "0.03",
                    "y/t": "0.03",
                    "Nota": "Valor de la tabla de origen; la propia fórmula DIN da 0.07 (k) en este R/t — el documento de origen es internamente inconsistente aquí"
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "0.10",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.15",
                    "K = k/2": "0.08",
                    "y/t": "0.08",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "0.20",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.30",
                    "K = k/2": "0.15",
                    "y/t": "0.15",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "0.25",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.35",
                    "K = k/2": "0.18",
                    "y/t": "0.18",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "0.33",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.41",
                    "K = k/2": "0.21",
                    "y/t": "0.21",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "0.50",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.50",
                    "K = k/2": "0.25",
                    "y/t": "0.25",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "0.75",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.59",
                    "K = k/2": "0.30",
                    "y/t": "0.30",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "1.00",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.65",
                    "K = k/2": "0.33",
                    "y/t": "0.33",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "1.25",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.70",
                    "K = k/2": "0.35",
                    "y/t": "0.35",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "1.50",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.74",
                    "K = k/2": "0.37",
                    "y/t": "0.37",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "1.75",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.77",
                    "K = k/2": "0.39",
                    "y/t": "0.39",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "2.00",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.80",
                    "K = k/2": "0.40",
                    "y/t": "0.40",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "2.50",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.85",
                    "K = k/2": "0.43",
                    "y/t": "0.43",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "3.00",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.89",
                    "K = k/2": "0.45",
                    "y/t": "0.45",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "3.50",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.92",
                    "K = k/2": "0.46",
                    "y/t": "0.46",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "4.00",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.95",
                    "K = k/2": "0.48",
                    "y/t": "0.48",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "4.50",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "0.98",
                    "K = k/2": "0.49",
                    "y/t": "0.49",
                    "Nota": ""
                },
                {
                    "R/t": "5.00",
                    "k (DIN 6935)": "1.00",
                    "K = k/2": "0.50",
                    "y/t": "0.50",
                    "Nota": "R/t ≥ 5: eje neutro en el medio espesor"
                }
            ]
        },
        {
            "caption": "¿Cuál es la diferencia entre doblado al aire, a fondo y acuñado en el factor K?",
            "columns": [
                "Clase de material",
                "Método de doblado",
                "R = 0–t",
                "R = t–3t",
                "R > 3t"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "Clase de material": "Soft (aluminium 5052, copper, brass)",
                    "Método de doblado": "Air bending",
                    "R = 0–t": "0.33",
                    "R = t–3t": "0.40",
                    "R > 3t": "0.50"
                },
                {
                    "Clase de material": "Soft (aluminium 5052, copper, brass)",
                    "Método de doblado": "Bottoming",
                    "R = 0–t": "0.42",
                    "R = t–3t": "0.46",
                    "R > 3t": "0.50"
                },
                {
                    "Clase de material": "Soft (aluminium 5052, copper, brass)",
                    "Método de doblado": "Coining",
                    "R = 0–t": "0.38",
                    "R = t–3t": "0.44",
                    "R > 3t": "0.50"
                },
                {
                    "Clase de material": "Medium (mild steel, galvanized)",
                    "Método de doblado": "Air bending",
                    "R = 0–t": "0.38",
                    "R = t–3t": "0.43",
                    "R > 3t": "0.50"
                },
                {
                    "Clase de material": "Medium (mild steel, galvanized)",
                    "Método de doblado": "Bottoming",
                    "R = 0–t": "0.44",
                    "R = t–3t": "0.47",
                    "R > 3t": "0.50"
                },
                {
                    "Clase de material": "Medium (mild steel, galvanized)",
                    "Método de doblado": "Coining",
                    "R = 0–t": "0.41",
                    "R = t–3t": "0.46",
                    "R > 3t": "0.50"
                },
                {
                    "Clase de material": "Hard (304/316 stainless)",
                    "Método de doblado": "Air bending",
                    "R = 0–t": "0.40",
                    "R = t–3t": "0.45",
                    "R > 3t": "0.50"
                },
                {
                    "Clase de material": "Hard (304/316 stainless)",
                    "Método de doblado": "Bottoming",
                    "R = 0–t": "0.46",
                    "R = t–3t": "0.48",
                    "R > 3t": "0.50"
                },
                {
                    "Clase de material": "Hard (304/316 stainless)",
                    "Método de doblado": "Coining",
                    "R = 0–t": "0.44",
                    "R = t–3t": "0.47",
                    "R > 3t": "0.50"
                }
            ]
        },
        {
            "caption": "¿Cómo calculo la tolerancia de doblado?",
            "columns": [
                "Término",
                "Fórmula",
                "Interpretación"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "Término": "K factor",
                    "Fórmula": "K = y / t, 0 ≤ K ≤ 0.5",
                    "Interpretación": "Desplazamiento del eje neutro desde la superficie interior respecto al espesor"
                },
                {
                    "Término": "Neutral radius",
                    "Fórmula": "R_neutral = R_i + K × t",
                    "Interpretación": "El radio de arco que realmente mantiene su longitud"
                },
                {
                    "Término": "Bend allowance BA",
                    "Fórmula": "BA = (π/180) × A × (R_i + K × t)",
                    "Interpretación": "Longitud de arco del eje neutro a través del doblez"
                },
                {
                    "Término": "Outside setback OSSB",
                    "Fórmula": "OSSB = (R_i + t) × tan(A/2)",
                    "Interpretación": "Longitud tangente desde el vértice hasta los puntos de tangencia del doblez"
                },
                {
                    "Término": "Bend deduction BD",
                    "Fórmula": "BD = 2 × OSSB − BA",
                    "Interpretación": "Lo que pierden las dos esquinas exteriores frente al desarrollo plano"
                },
                {
                    "Término": "Flat length L",
                    "Fórmula": "L = A + B + BA (flat legs); L = A_out + B_out − BD (outside dims)",
                    "Interpretación": "Ambos dan el mismo resultado cuando K es correcto — mezclar BA y BD es el error clásico del desarrollo plano"
                },
                {
                    "Término": "Angle convention",
                    "Fórmula": "A = 180° − included angle",
                    "Interpretación": "90° bend: A = 90; 60° included: A = 120; 120° included: A = 60"
                }
            ]
        },
        {
            "caption": "¿Cómo calculo la deducción de doblado?",
            "columns": [
                "Caso",
                "Ítem",
                "Valor"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "Caso": "90°, t 2.0, R 2.0",
                    "Ítem": "OSSB = (2+2)·tan45°",
                    "Valor": "4.000 mm"
                },
                {
                    "Caso": "90°, t 2.0, R 2.0",
                    "Ítem": "BD = 2×4.000 − 4.163",
                    "Valor": "3.837 mm"
                },
                {
                    "Caso": "90°, t 2.0, R 2.0",
                    "Ítem": "L = 50 + 30 − 3.837",
                    "Valor": "76.163 mm"
                },
                {
                    "Caso": "A=120°, t 1.5, R 3.0, 304",
                    "Ítem": "K = (0.65 + 0.5·log10 2)/2",
                    "Valor": "0.4003"
                },
                {
                    "Caso": "A=120°, t 1.5, R 3.0, 304",
                    "Ítem": "BA = 2.0944 × (3 + 0.4003×1.5)",
                    "Valor": "7.541 mm"
                },
                {
                    "Caso": "A=120°, t 1.5, R 3.0, 304",
                    "Ítem": "OSSB = 4.5 × tan60°",
                    "Valor": "7.794 mm"
                },
                {
                    "Caso": "A=120°, t 1.5, R 3.0, 304",
                    "Ítem": "L = 52.206 + 32.206 + 7.541",
                    "Valor": "91.95 mm"
                },
                {
                    "Caso": "A=120°, t 1.5, R 3.0, 304",
                    "Ítem": "BD check: 60 + 40 − (2×7.794 − 7.541)",
                    "Valor": "91.952 mm ✓"
                },
                {
                    "Caso": "A=120°, t 1.5, R 3.0, 304",
                    "Ítem": "If hard-air K 0.45 instead",
                    "Valor": "L = 92.11 mm (+0.156 vs DIN 0.40: 0.16 mm per bend)"
                }
            ]
        },
        {
            "caption": "¿Qué apertura de matriz en V debo utilizar para acero dulce de 2 mm?",
            "columns": [
                "t (mm)",
                "V (mm)",
                "R_i (mm)",
                "Pestaña mín. (mm)",
                "Tonelaje (t/m)",
                "Fuente"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "t (mm)": "0.5",
                    "V (mm)": "6",
                    "R_i (mm)": "0.96",
                    "Pestaña mín. (mm)": "—",
                    "Tonelaje (t/m)": "—",
                    "Fuente": "practical min V6, calc"
                },
                {
                    "t (mm)": "0.8",
                    "V (mm)": "6",
                    "R_i (mm)": "0.96",
                    "Pestaña mín. (mm)": "—",
                    "Tonelaje (t/m)": "—",
                    "Fuente": "S3 method, calc"
                },
                {
                    "t (mm)": "1.0",
                    "V (mm)": "8",
                    "R_i (mm)": "1.3",
                    "Pestaña mín. (mm)": "> 5.5",
                    "Tonelaje (t/m)": "8",
                    "Fuente": "S3"
                },
                {
                    "t (mm)": "1.5",
                    "V (mm)": "12",
                    "R_i (mm)": "2.0",
                    "Pestaña mín. (mm)": "> 8.5",
                    "Tonelaje (t/m)": "10",
                    "Fuente": "S3"
                },
                {
                    "t (mm)": "2.0",
                    "V (mm)": "16",
                    "R_i (mm)": "2.6",
                    "Pestaña mín. (mm)": "> 11.0",
                    "Tonelaje (t/m)": "12",
                    "Fuente": "S3"
                },
                {
                    "t (mm)": "2.5",
                    "V (mm)": "20",
                    "R_i (mm)": "3.3",
                    "Pestaña mín. (mm)": "> 14.0",
                    "Tonelaje (t/m)": "14",
                    "Fuente": "S3"
                },
                {
                    "t (mm)": "3.0",
                    "V (mm)": "25",
                    "R_i (mm)": "4.0",
                    "Pestaña mín. (mm)": "> 17.5",
                    "Tonelaje (t/m)": "16",
                    "Fuente": "S3"
                },
                {
                    "t (mm)": "4.0",
                    "V (mm)": "32",
                    "R_i (mm)": "5.0",
                    "Pestaña mín. (mm)": "> 22.0",
                    "Tonelaje (t/m)": "22",
                    "Fuente": "S3"
                },
                {
                    "t (mm)": "5.0",
                    "V (mm)": "40",
                    "R_i (mm)": "6.5",
                    "Pestaña mín. (mm)": "> 28.0",
                    "Tonelaje (t/m)": "27",
                    "Fuente": "S3"
                },
                {
                    "t (mm)": "6.0",
                    "V (mm)": "50",
                    "R_i (mm)": "8.0",
                    "Pestaña mín. (mm)": "> 35.0",
                    "Tonelaje (t/m)": "32",
                    "Fuente": "S3"
                }
            ]
        },
        {
            "caption": "¿Qué factor K debo utilizar para el inoxidable 304?",
            "columns": [
                "Criterio",
                "K en R≈t",
                "Aplica a",
                "Fuente"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "Criterio": "Shop-measured caliber",
                    "K en R≈t": "0.46",
                    "Aplica a": "304, air bending, R = t",
                    "Fuente": "S4"
                },
                {
                    "Criterio": "Shop-measured caliber",
                    "K en R≈t": "0.50",
                    "Aplica a": "316, air bending, R = t",
                    "Fuente": "S4"
                },
                {
                    "Criterio": "Published hard class (t–3t)",
                    "K en R≈t": "0.45",
                    "Aplica a": "Generic 304/316 hard tier — does not separate 304 from 316",
                    "Fuente": "S2/S5"
                },
                {
                    "Criterio": "DIN 6935 at R/t = 2",
                    "K en R≈t": "0.40",
                    "Aplica a": "Geometry only — no work-hardening difference",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S6"
                },
                {
                    "Criterio": "This page, Table 2",
                    "K en R≈t": "0.41–0.45",
                    "Aplica a": "316 takes the upper bound; test-bend",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                }
            ]
        },
        {
            "caption": "¿Qué factor K debo utilizar para el aluminio 5052?",
            "columns": [
                "Criterio",
                "K",
                "Aplica a",
                "Fuente"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "Criterio": "Shop-measured (R = t)",
                    "K": "0.33",
                    "Aplica a": "5052-H32, air bending",
                    "Fuente": "S4"
                },
                {
                    "Criterio": "Published soft air (t–3t)",
                    "K": "0.40",
                    "Aplica a": "Generic soft aluminium",
                    "Fuente": "S2/S5"
                },
                {
                    "Criterio": "DIN 6935 (R/t = 1.2)",
                    "K": "0.345",
                    "Aplica a": "Geometry only",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S6"
                },
                {
                    "Criterio": "This page, Table 2",
                    "K": "0.34–0.40",
                    "Aplica a": "Soft temper low end, hard temper or wide V high end",
                    "Fuente": "S1/S2/S3"
                }
            ]
        },
        {
            "caption": "¿Puedo utilizar un único factor K para todos los espesores?",
            "columns": [
                "t (mm)",
                "V (mm)",
                "R_i (mm)",
                "R/t",
                "K DIN 6935"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "t (mm)": "0.5",
                    "V (mm)": "6",
                    "R_i (mm)": "0.96",
                    "R/t": "1.92",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.40"
                },
                {
                    "t (mm)": "0.8",
                    "V (mm)": "6",
                    "R_i (mm)": "0.96",
                    "R/t": "1.20",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.34"
                },
                {
                    "t (mm)": "2.0",
                    "V (mm)": "16",
                    "R_i (mm)": "2.56",
                    "R/t": "1.28",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.35"
                },
                {
                    "t (mm)": "3.0",
                    "V (mm)": "25",
                    "R_i (mm)": "4.00",
                    "R/t": "1.33",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.36"
                },
                {
                    "t (mm)": "6.0",
                    "V (mm)": "50",
                    "R_i (mm)": "8.00",
                    "R/t": "1.33",
                    "K DIN 6935": "0.36"
                }
            ]
        },
        {
            "caption": "¿Cómo mido el factor K real de mi plegadora?",
            "columns": [
                "Paso",
                "Regla",
                "Valor"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "Paso": "1",
                    "Regla": "Strip",
                    "Valor": "200 × 50 mm, bend at 90° mid-length"
                },
                {
                    "Paso": "2",
                    "Regla": "Measure both outside flanges A_out + B_out",
                    "Valor": "BD = 200 − (A_out + B_out)"
                },
                {
                    "Paso": "3",
                    "Regla": "Back-solve",
                    "Valor": "K = [2(R+t)tan(A/2) − BD] / [(π/180)·A·t] − R/t"
                },
                {
                    "Paso": "4",
                    "Regla": "Write into CAD material library",
                    "Valor": "per material + tooling pair"
                }
            ]
        },
        {
            "caption": "¿Dónde está el eje neutro en un doblez?",
            "columns": [
                "Caso",
                "K",
                "t (mm)",
                "y = K·t (mm)",
                "Radio neutro"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "Caso": "DC01 2.0 mm, R/t 1.28",
                    "K": "0.35",
                    "t (mm)": "2.0",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.70",
                    "Radio neutro": "R + 0.70 mm (R_i 2.56 → neutral 3.26 mm)"
                },
                {
                    "Caso": "DC01 3.0 mm, R/t 1.33",
                    "K": "0.36",
                    "t (mm)": "3.0",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "1.07",
                    "Radio neutro": "R + 1.07 mm"
                },
                {
                    "Caso": "304 1.5 mm, R/t 2.13",
                    "K": "0.41",
                    "t (mm)": "1.5",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "0.61",
                    "Radio neutro": "R + 0.61 mm"
                },
                {
                    "Caso": "DC01 6.0 mm, R/t 1.33",
                    "K": "0.36",
                    "t (mm)": "6.0",
                    "y = K·t (mm)": "2.14",
                    "Radio neutro": "R + 2.14 mm"
                }
            ]
        },
        {
            "caption": "¿Por qué el acuñado muestra a veces un K más bajo que el doblado a fondo?",
            "columns": [
                "Método",
                "K blando (t–3t)",
                "K medio (t–3t)",
                "K duro (t–3t)",
                "Fuente"
            ],
            "rows": [
                {
                    "Método": "Bottoming",
                    "K blando (t–3t)": "0.46",
                    "K medio (t–3t)": "0.47",
                    "K duro (t–3t)": "0.48",
                    "Fuente": "S2/S5"
                },
                {
                    "Método": "Coining",
                    "K blando (t–3t)": "0.44",
                    "K medio (t–3t)": "0.46",
                    "K duro (t–3t)": "0.47",
                    "Fuente": "S2/S5"
                },
                {
                    "Método": "Expectation",
                    "K blando (t–3t)": "—",
                    "K medio (t–3t)": "—",
                    "K duro (t–3t)": "—",
                    "Fuente": "—"
                },
                {
                    "Método": "Second source confirming the ranking",
                    "K blando (t–3t)": "none found",
                    "K medio (t–3t)": "none found",
                    "K duro (t–3t)": "none found",
                    "Fuente": "GAP"
                }
            ]
        }
    ]
}